Journal of Tea Science

Research Progress on Chemical Constituents and Biological Activities of Alkaloids in Tea

TANG Haikun, ZHANG Lanjun, ZHANG Panpan, LIU Benying

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 727-741.

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Alkaloids, as a class of nitrogen-containing secondary metabolites characterized by remarkable chemical diversity, are widely distributed in higher plants, fungi, and bacteria. Most natural alkaloids possess biological activities such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor effects. This review comprehensively summarized the identified alkaloid groups in tea and briefly analyzed their biological activities, including: (1) purine alkaloids, which regulate neural excitability by antagonizing adenosine receptors and inhibiting phosphodiesterase to regulate metabolic functions, exhibit anti-inflammatory, and other biological activities. (2) flavor alkaloids have effects in preventing diabetes and inhibiting cancer cell angiogenesis. (3) the mechanisms by which prenylated indole alkaloids exert anti-inflammatory effects, inhibit cancer cell growth and exert neuro-protective effects. Finally, the future research directions focusing on the identification, appraisal, synthesis and functional evaluation systems of tea alkaloids were proposed.

Identification of CsDET2 and Its Response Analysis to Photoperiod and Abiotic Stress in Camellia sinensis

LI Guinan, YANG Ni, LUO Wei, ZHANG Jiaqi, HU Zhihang, XIONG Aisheng, HAO Jiannan, ZHUANG Jing

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 742-756.

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Tea plants [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] is important leaf cash crops in China, and its growth and development are affected by plant hormones. As one of the six classical plant hormones, brassinosteroids (BRs) play crucial roles in regulating both developmental processes and stress adaptation in tea plants. Steroid 5α-reductase is a key enzyme in the brassinosteroid biosynthesis pathway. To characterize steroid 5α-reductase in Camellia sinensis, the CsDET2 gene was cloned from tea cultivar ‘Shuchazao'. Then, the physicochemical properties, secondary and tertiary structures, sequence characteristics, phylogenetic relationships, and subcellular localization of the encoded protein were analyzed, along with the cis-acting elements in gene promoter region. Furthermore, the expression profile of CsDET2 was examined across different organs under abiotic stress conditions and during a 12 h/12 h photoperiod cycle. The results reveal that the CsDET2 gene contains a 783 bp open reading frame encoding 260 amino acids. The CsDET2 protein has a molecular weight of 30 158.97 Da with a theoretical isoelectric point of 9.28, and is predominantly composed of α-helices and random coils, containing a characteristic steroid dehydrogenase domain. Comparative sequence alignment with DET2 proteins from 15 species shows 78.25% amino acid sequence identity. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that CsDET2 shares the closest evolutionary relationship with AfDET2 from Actinidiarufa. Subcellular localization experiments confirm that CsDET2 is localized in the cytoplasm. Analysis of cis-acting elements reveals that the promoter region of CsDET2 contains 4 types of photo-responsive elements, 4 types of stress-responsive elements, 3 types of hormone responsive elements, and 5 types of transcription factor binding sites. The fluorescence quantification results show that CsDET2 was expressed in all organs, and the expression level was the highest in the old leaves. In the 12L/12D photoperiod, the expression level of CsDET2 decreased first and then increased during the daytime, increased first and then decreased at night, and the expression level of CsDET2 at night was higher than that during the daytime. The expression of CsDET2 shows significant changes under high temperature and salt stress treatments, and was regulated by exogenous gibberellins. The results provided a theoretical basis and valuable insights for further exploring the function of tea plant steroid 5α-reductase.

Cloning and Functional Analysis of the Anthocyanin Synthase Gene CsANS1 in the Purple Bud Tea Variety ‘Zijuan'

FAN Yangen, XIAO Yue, MENG Fanyue, LIU Wenjie, ZHANG Ying, SUN Ping, ZHANG Lixia, REN Lijun

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 757-769.

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Anthocyanins exhibit diverse health benefits in humans, including antioxidant and anticancer effects, making them a key target for functional crop breeding. Anthocyanin synthase (ANS), a pivotal enzyme in anthocyanin biosynthesis, has been demonstrated to regulate anthocyanin accumulation in various crops. However, functional studies on ANS genes in tea plants (Camellia sinensis) remain limited. In this study, we identified a specifically highly expressed CsANS1 gene in the purple leaves of tea cultivar ‘Zijuan' through comparative transcriptome analysis of four tea cultivars with distinct leaf colors. Gene expression analysis reveals that CsANS1 expression in ‘Zijuan' was significantly higher than in other cultivars and other ANS family members (CsANS2 and CsANS3) in tea plants. Tissue-specific expression analysis further demonstrats that CsANS1 exhibited the highest expression level in ‘Zijuan' leaves, showing an expression trend of first increasing and then decreasing with the development of buds and leaves. Phylogenetic analysis indicats that sequence similarity among ANS gene copies within species is higher than that among interspecies homologs, and all members of the tea ANS family possess the highly conserved Fe(Ⅱ)/2OG dioxygenase domain. Comparative gene sequencing and protein tertiary structure prediction analyses reveal two non-synonymous mutations in the coding region of CsANS1 in ‘Zijuan', with the amino acid variation at position 165 potentially affecting local protein conformation. Following VIGS-mediated silencing of CsANS1, the anthocyanin content in ‘Zijuan' shoots significantly decreased, accompanied by a lightening of leaf color. In conclusion, this study confirms that CsANS1 is a key gene regulating high-level anthocyanin accumulation in ‘Zijuan' buds and leaves, providing an important molecular target for breeding high-anthocyanin tea cultivars.

Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification-based Detection of Colletotrichum camelliae

TU Yiyi, ZHANG You, XU Ting, CHEN Junjie, WANG Yuchun, LÜ Wuyun

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 770-782.

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Colletotrichum camelliae is the dominant pathogen causing tea anthracnose. This disease causes significant defoliation, which has a major impact on the following year's yield and results in great economic losses. Therefore, the early and timely detection of C. camelliae in tea leaves is of great significance for effective control of anthracnose in production. In this study, based on a loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay, a specific gene encoding a late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) domain protein from C. camelliae was selected for the design of LAMP primers. Three pairs of specific LAMP primers, including two outer primers, two inner primers, and two loop primers, were designed and selected. Subsequently, a LAMP assay for C. camelliae was established through specificity and sensitivity tests, and by detecting C. camelliae in artificially inoculated and infected tea leaves. The optimal reaction condition was determined to be at 65 ℃ for 30 min. The results were verified by 2% agarose gel electrophoresis with SYBR Green Ⅰ added. Specificity tests reveal that, only DNA extracted from C. camelliae isolates exhibited a positive amplification reaction. In sensitivity tests, the assay could detect genomic DNA templates of C. camelliae at a minimum concentration of 100 ag·µL^-1. The LAMP assay accurately detected C. camelliae in artificially inoculated diseased leaves and anthracnose-affected leaves of 18 tea germplasms in the field. In summary, the LAMP assay for detecting C. camelliae established in this study has the advantages of rapid, simple and high sensitivity, enabling the specific detection of C. camelliae and the quick diagnosis of tea anthracnose.

Effects of Different Cultivation Patterns on Physiological and Biochemcial Characteristics of New Shoots in Seed-Leaf Dual-Purpose Tea Plants

JIANG Li, LI Duojiao, HU Xinrong, SHEN Yingzi, ZHENG Zhaisheng, WENG Xiaoxing, LIU Shujing, BIAN Xiaodong, YUAN Ming'an, CHEN Xuan

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 783-794.

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To explore the differences in tea leaf quality and metabolic profiles of a new seed-leaf dual-pupose tea cultivar ‘Jincha 1' under different cultivation patterns, the study investigated the phenological stages, lengths, weight per hundred buds of single bud, one bud with one leaf, and one bud with two leaves shoots under single plant sparse planting pattern and strip dense planting pattern. Moreover, comprehensive analyses were conducted on quality components and metabolomic profiling of the samples of one bud with two leaves. The results show that the tea cultivar ‘Jincha 1' under single plant sparse planting pattern yielded longer and heavier single buds, one bud with one leaf, and one bud with two leaves shoots compared to the strip dense planting pattern. Additionally, there is a delayed maturity period single plant sparse planting. Furthermore, the contents of tea polyphenols, catechins and gallic acid in the new shoots of single plant sparse planting pattern were 3.96, 5.06, and 1.19 percentage points higher than those of strip dense planting pattern, respectively. Conversely, strip dense planting resulted in higher total amino acid (1.27 percentage points) and theanine (0.21 percentage points) contents. A total of 163 significantly differential metabolites were identified by comparative metabolomics analysis, which were largely enriched in amino acid and polyphenol biosynthetic pathways. Notably, the contents of abscisic acid (ABA), gibberellin (GA), and jasmonic acid (JA) were higher in the single plant sparse planting pattern than those in the strip dense planting pattern. While, the levels of indoleacetic acid (IAA), 6-chloroadenosine phosphate (6-KT), and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) in the single plant sparse planting pattern were lower than those in the strip dense planting pattern. This study reveals the mechanism by which different cultivation modes affect the tea quality through the regulation of endogenous hormones and metabolic pathways, providing a practical model for efficient cultivation in industrial promotion.

Identification and Classification of Tea Leaf Color and Establishment of A Tea Leaf Color System

WANG Kairong, ZHANG Longjie, LIANG Yuerong, LI Xiaoxiang, ZHENG Xinqiang

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 795-807.

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The color values of 865 colored tea germplasm were obtained by comparing them with the PANTONE and RHS plant color cards, and describing them in language. Based on the principles of color science and the descriptors and data standard for tea germplasm, the basis and method for leaf color identification and classification were established according to the coloring regularity of tea leaves. On the basis of the definition of leaf color, a framework of tea leaf color composition consisting of type, series, sub-series and color level was established. The existing tea leaf colors were drawn into a tea leaf color system diagram (leaf color wheel), including 5 types, 9 color series, 6 sub-series (belonging to 3 color series) and 72 color levels. This paper provided a scientific basis for the leaf color differentiation and accurate identification of colored tea germplasms.

Integrated Sensory Evaluation and Metabolomics Analysis of the Quality Characteristics of Yihong Black Tea with Different Levels of Tenderness

LI Jing, HU Xinlong, TANG Huishan, GUO Jinling, HU Guangcan, FENG Depin, QIU Fangfang, WANG Mingle

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 808-820.

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To elucidate the quality characteristics of Yihong black tea, a systematic analysis was conducted on the quality attributes of Yihong black tea with different levels of tenderness based on sensory evaluation, colorimetric analysis, and targeted metabolomics. The results demonstrate that sensory evaluation scores exhibited a positive correlation with leaf tenderness. The theaflavin content exhibited an initial increase followed by a decline with the decrease in leaf tenderness, and the content of theaflavins was positively correlated with the color parameter L^* value of the tea infusion. The soluble sugar content elevated with the decrease in leaf tenderness, whereas the contents of tea polyphenols and total free amino acids gradually declined. Furthermore, a total of 162 non-volatile metabolites were identified based on the UPLC-MS/MS. Among them, 24 characteristic metabolites were characterized as marker compounds for distinguishing Yihong black tea with different levels of tenderness, including 10 flavonoids [hyperoside, kaempferol-3-O-(6''-trans-P-coumaroyl-2''-glucosyl) rhamnoside, quercetin 3-rutinoside-7-glucoside, keracyanin, kaempferol 3-rutinosidea, astragaline, kaempferol 3-O-galactoside, quercetin 3-rutinoside-7-galactoside, quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside-7-O-glucoside, quercetin 3-rutinoside], 7 catechins [(+)-catechin, catechin gallate, epicatechin, (-)-epigallocatechin, (-)-gallocatechin gallate, epigallocatechin gallate, (-)-epicatechin gallate], 4 amino acids [L-phenylalanine, L-arginine, D-(+)-pipecolinic acid, L-(-)-pipecolinic acid], 3 alkaloids [caffeine, theobromine, adenosine]. These results clearly defined the typical quality attributes of Yihong black tea as “amber-hued liquor, and a honeyed fruity bouquet” and further elucidated the characteristic metabolites responsible for the quality differences in Yihong black tea with different levels of tenderness, providing a scientific basis for optimizing processing techniques and precisely modulating flavor profiles, and facilitating standardized processing and quality enhancement of Yihong black tea.

Study on Comprehensive Optimization of the Extraction Process and Emulsion Loading System of Water-extracted Polysaccharides from Qingzhuan Tea and Alkali-extracted Polysaccharides from Tea Residue

GUO Yu, XIAO Liuyu, DU Qiuyi, TIAN Ye, HAN Yu

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 821-840.

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Qingzhuan tea is a regional iconic product of Hubei Province. This study used Hubei-specific, pile-fermented (unpressed) Qingzhuan tea as a sample to optimize the water and alkali extraction processes via response surface methodology. The study then compared the physicochemical properties of two tea polysaccharides (TPS) and clarified their emulsion stability and loading effect over 10 days of storage. The results show that the optimal conditions for water extraction were 60 ℃, 367 W of ultrasonic power, a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:40 and an extraction rate of (5.019±0.130)%. The optimal conditions for alkali extraction from the water-extracted tea residue were 85 ℃, a solid-to-liquid ratio of 1:40, pH 9.0 and an extraction rate of (1.101±0.034)%. The molecular weight, free radical scavenging rate for antioxidant activity, monosaccharide content, particle size, zeta potential, emulsion stability and loading capacity of water extracted TPS were higher than those of alkali-extracted TPS. TPS emulsions show good stability during the storage period of 10 days, and has a broad application prospect as a load material.

Study on the Hypoglycemic Effects of Major Compounds in White Tea Based on Network Pharmacology and Zebrafish Model

SU Lin, HUANG Zihao, SUN Dan, CHEN Jinhua, ZHENG Yajie, LU Ying

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 841-851.

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To further clarify the effects of the main compounds in white tea on blood glucose levels, the network pharmacology was used to conduct a correlation analysis between 8 main compounds in white tea and diabetes, and a zebrafish biological model was adopted for verification. The network pharmacology analysis reveals that blood glucose was primarily regulated by gallic acid, catechin group, and caffeine in white tea through four targets: TNF, p53, SRC and CASP3. The verification results of the zebrafish model show that the maximum tolerance concentrations of zebrafish to the different samples were as follows: 100.00 µg·mL^-1 (white tea soup), 6.25 µg·mL^-1 (gallic acid, caffeine), 12.50 µg·mL^-1 (EGCG), 25.00 µg·mL^-1 (ECG, EGC, GCG), 50.00 µg·mL^-1 (EC), and 150.00 µg·mL^-1 (C). At this concentration, the blood glucose values decreased significantly in all groups compared with the model group: the positive drug (ACA) group by 53.7%, the white tea soup group by 16.2%, the gallic acid group by 33.6%, the EGCG group by 47.3%, the ECG group by 30.0%, the EGC group by 52.6%, the GCG group by 25.8%, the EC group by 21.5%, and the C group by 29.4%. Only the caffeine group showed a significant blood glucose-elevating effect (P<0.05), with an increase of 16.9%. The qPCR results show that, compared with the blank group, the expression levels of TNF, SRC and CASP3 in the model group were significantly increased, while the expression level of TP53 was significantly decreased (P<0.05). Compared with the model group, the expression levels of TNF, SRC and CASP3 in the gallic acid and catechin groups were significantly decreased (P<0.05), while the expression level of TP53 was significantly increased (P<0.05). The expression levels of TNF and SRC in the caffeine group were significantly increased (P<0.05), while there were no significant differences in TP53 and CASP3. The results show that gallic acid and catechin components in white tea both exhibited significant hypoglycemic effects, which were mainly achieved by regulating four targets: TNF, p53, SRC and CASP3. In contrast, caffeine was found to have a significant blood glucose-elevating effect, primarily through TNF and SRC.

Study on the Physicochemical Components and in Vitro Antioxidant Differences of Green Tea from Longnan, Gansu and Jinhua, Zhejiang

WANG Yonghui, WANG Duofeng, LI Xuemin, SHI Tianbin, WU Lidong, LIU Zaiguo, ZHANG Guangzhong, ZHAO Fengyun

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 852-864.

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To investigate the effects of geographical origin and cultivar on green tea quality, this study analyzed the liquor color, physicochemical components, and in vitro antioxidant activities of eight green teas from Longnan, Gansu and Jinhua, Zhejiang. Correlation and cluster analyses were employed for a comprehensive evaluation. The results show that compared to Longnan green teas, Jinhua green teas exhibited brighter green liquor color and a fresher, sweeter aftertaste. In contrast, Longnan green teas contained higher levels of tea polyphenols, flavonoids, caffeine, vitamin C (VC), catechins, and mineral elements, as well as superior in vitro antioxidant activities, including DPPH radical scavenging ability, ABTS radical scavenging ability, hydroxyl radical (·OH) scavenging ability, and total antioxidant ability (T-AOC). Among the tested cultivars, Longnan Camellia sinensis cv. ‘Yunfeng 5' and Jinhua Camellia sinensis cv. ‘Jiaming 1' had the best overall quality and antioxidant performance. The correlation results show that the color, physical and chemical components and antioxidant capacity of tea decoction were closely correlated. Among them, tea polyphenols, VC and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) were positively correlated with the antioxidant ability of the four kinds of tea decoction (P<0.01). Cluster analysis divided the samples into two distinct groups corresponding to their geographical origins, indicating that origin had a greater influence on tea quality than cultivar. This study provided a theoretical foundation for evaluating the effects of geographical origin and cultivar on the antioxidant properties of green tea.

The Effects of Biochar-based Fertilizer on the Physical Stability of Organic Carbon in Soil Aggregates of Tea Gardens

CHEN Junrui, HU Junming, SHI Yuanzhi, WEI Xianghua, SONG Chuankui, ZHANG Junhui, ZHENG Fuhai, SUO Guangli

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 865-878.

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Soil aggregate is an important indicator of soil structure and fertility. Soil compaction and nutrient deficiency in tea gardens in subtropical red soil areas seriously affect the stability of soil carbon pools. Evaluating the effects of biochar-based fertilizer application on the organic carbon structure characteristics and physical stability of soil aggregates in tea gardens can help to reduce soil barriers and improve productivity in intensive tea gardens. In this study, a 40-year old Xishan tea garden in Guiping, Guangxi, located along the Tropic of Cancer, was selected as the research object. Three treatments [biochar-based fertilizer (BF), chemical fertilizer (F), and no fertilizer (CK)] were used for a field positioning test for two consecutive years to explore the soil aggregate structure, organic carbon distribution and physical stability of the tea garden. The results show that: (1) the application of biochar-based fertilizer increased soil pH value and cation exchange capacity (C_EC), and tended to decrease soil bulk density (B_D). The soil pH value under the treatment of biochar-based fertilizer increased by 0.18 and 0.31 respectively compared with the no fertilizer and chemical fertilizer treatments. The soil bulk density under the biochar-based fertilizer treatment decreased by 4.52% compared with the chemical fertilizer treatment. The cation exchange capacity under the biochar-based fertilizer treatment increased by 12.12% and 15.09% respectively compared with the no fertilizer and chemical fertilizer treatments. (2) The application of biochar-based fertilizer improved the structural stability of soil aggregates and promoted the formation of large aggregates with soil water stability. The values of water stability large aggregates (R_W0.25), mean mass diameter (D_MW) and geometric mean diameter (D_GM) of aggregates >0.25 mm under the biochar-based fertilizer treatment were increased by 15.34%, 23.94% and 34.48% compared with the chemical fertilizer treatment. (3) The application of biochar-based fertilizer increased the organic carbon content of soil macroaggregates, which was conducive to the storage of organic carbon in soil macroaggregates. The organic carbon content of the aggregate with particle size >2.00 mm under the biochar-based fertilizer treatment was significantly higher than that under the chemical fertilizer and no fertilizer treatments, increasing by 45.23% and 17.28%, respectively. The contribution rate of organic carbon in biochar-based fertilizer was 77.48% and 13.11% higher than that of chemical fertilizer and no fertilizer, respectively. The contribution rate of active organic carbon in aggregates under biochar-based fertilizer treatment was 50.40% higher than that under chemical fertilizer treatment. (4) The application of biochar-based fertilizer improved the stability of organic carbon in microaggregates. For aggregates with a particle size of >0.053-0.25 mm and ≤0.053 mm, the organic carbon oxidation stability coefficient (K_OS) under biochar-based fertilizer treatment increased by 82.42% and 77.78%, respectively, compared with that under no fertilizer treatment. For aggregates with particle size of >0.25-2.00 mm, the organic carbon oxidation stability coefficient under biochar-based fertilizer treatment decreased by 40.79% and 49.58%, respectively, compared to the chemical fertilizer and no fertilizer treatments. Biochar-based fertilizer treatment had a tendency to reduce the stability of organic carbon in large soil aggregates. The application of biochar-based fertilizer is conducive to the optimized management and carbon pool stability of tea gardens.

Lightweight Online Sorting Method of Milled Tea Based on Improved YOLOv5s

LI Bing, ZHU Yong, XIA Chenglong, LI Feilong, CAI Zhenyang, WU Hao

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 879-897.

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Milled tea is the raw material for the production of matcha and it is the most important factor in ensuring the quality of matcha. Rapid and effective sorting of milled tea improves its quality. Due to the low efficiency and high labor intensity of the current sorting process in milled tea production, an online sorting system for milled tea was developed in this study. This system is composed of a material conveying system, an image acquisition system, an image recognition system, a positioning system and a sorting execution control system. The image acquisition system is used to collect the milled tea image and make the milled tea image data set. According to the real-time and lightweight requirements of milled tea recognition, the EfficientNet backbone network and SimSPPF module were introduced based on the YOLOv5s model, and the YOLOv5s-EfficientNet-SimSPPF model was improved and designed. On the basis of ensuring the recognition precision, the model recognition speed was improved and the model size was reduced. The established test set was used to evaluate the recognition performance of YOLOv5s, YOLOv5s-EfficientNet, YOLOv5s-SimSPPF and YOLOv5s-EfficientNet-SimSPPF on the PC. The recognition precision, recall, mAP@0.5, inference time and model size of YOLOv5s-EfficientNet-SimSPPF were 0.993, 0.981, 0.995, 6.3 ms and 2.85 MB, respectively. This study also proposed a sorting control algorithm for online sorting based on the online recognition results of milled tea. In addition, an auxiliary algorithm was proposed to prevent low-precision secondary recognition and secondary positioning of the milled tea on the boundary of the field of view of the industrial camera during the sorting process. The YOLOv5s-EfficientNet-SimSPPF model was deployed to the edge device Jetson Nano B01, and the model was tested using the test set. The recognition precision and speed were 0.982 ms and 37.5 ms, respectively. The results show that the real-time milled tea recognition can essentially be achieved by deploying the model migration to the developed online milled tea sorting system. Finally, the milled tea separation was carried out on the designed and developed platform, and the average separation accuracy rate of mixed milled tea leaves and milled tea stems reached 97.0%. The online milled tea sorting system proposed in this paper can meet the actual needs of online milled tea sorting, and can be used as an effective tool for the fine processing of matcha and milled tea sorting operation, providing a reference for online recognition and continuous sorting of other agricultural products.

Research on Tea Light Complementary Mode Based on Tea Planting and Photovoltaic Power Generation

MENG Chao, LIANG Tao, ZHANG Xia, WANG Wanhong, DONG Huanglin, LI Ming

Journal of Tea Science. 2025, 45(5): 898-908.

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To explore the effects of tea light complementary mode on the growth environment, yield performance and economic benefits, the microclimate environment such as temperature, humidity and light in the tea garden-PV complementary model was analyzed in this study with the open-air tea garden as a control. Indicators such as tea bud germination and growth, photosynthetic rate, and fresh leaf yield were detected, and the photovoltaic power generation was simulated and calculated. The overall economic benefits of the tea garden were analyzed. The results show that the photosynthetically active radiation of the tea canopy in photovoltaic tea gardens was lower than that in open-air tea gardens. The average minimum temperature of tea canopy in photovoltaic tea gardens at night in spring (March) was 0.63 ℃ higher than that in open-air tea gardens, and the average maximum temperature in daytime in summer (July) was 1.80 ℃lower than that in open-air tea gardens. The average relative humidity of tea canopy in photovoltaic tea gardens was higher than that in open-air tea gardens. The tea buds in photovoltaic tea gardens germinated and grew faster, and the utilization efficiency of light radiation was higher. The yield per unit area of the picking area in different harvesting seasons was 9.74%-28.84% higher than that of the open-air tea gardens. The overall output of the tea garden decreased by 23.11% to 34.16% due to the occupation of land for the construction of photovoltaic modules. The annual income of photovoltaic tea gardens, including power generation revenue, was 6.030×10⁵ CNY per hectare, while the annual income of open-air tea gardens was 2.249×10⁵ CNY. Considering the one-time investment cost of 3.740 3 million CNY for building photovoltaic modules, the total revenue of photovoltaic tea gardens will exceed that of open-air tea gardens after 9 years. This study has certain guiding and referential significance for the application and promotion of the tea-light complementary agricultural model in southern China.

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